High School Compared to the University Essay

High school and university are two important levels of every education’s foundation in the world. It educates students and gives them the knowledge to help them promote their ability position in the future. The first similarity thing is both of them, high school and university, have the same purpose and benefits. Students in high school and university will be educated by teacher through giving them more knowledge not only from text books but also from teacher’s experiences, training them how to improve their skill in learning and help them to take form their personality. The second thing, also similar, is the structure. Every grade has different kind of knowledge to study, but the first year is usually more general than the last year which is the busiest time in student’s life for difficult exams, good scores, and working hard for graduation. However, there are also many obvious differences between high school and university. Teaching styles in high school are obviously different from those in university. Teachers in high schools teach detailed knowledge and facts step by step. They guide students attentively. Also, teachers in high school usually take time to remind students of assignments and the date of tests. In contrast, instructors in university go through the textbooks quickly. They prepare a syllabus distributing and discussing it in the first day of class. Therefore, students should follow the syllabus without reminding about assignments or exams. With the change of teaching styles, students have to adjust their learning strategies. After understanding, students in high school not only memorize the content in textbooks, but refer to ready-made notes which are organized by teachers. All they need to do is study diligently. Because of it, they lack the opportunities to think by themselves. Unlike high school, students in university need to learn how to organize and arrange the big amounts of materials by themselves. Also, analyzing the information and brainstorming are essential abilities. Furthermore, high school students are somewhat more passive than university students. They usually depend on patient and hard-working teachers. On the contrary, university students need to study spontaneously. The last difference is the attendance polices. In High School the teachers are always on students about attendance. They probably call their parents and let them know if the students miss classes. On the contrary, in university the teachers do not care whether or not students are in class. It means that if students are not there, they are going to get a failing grade. So they have to be responsible to succeed. In conclusion, high school and university prepare students to think independently and critically.

Micromax Info Essay

Regd. Office: 21/14, Naraina Industrial Area, New Delhi-110028. CODE OF CONDUCT FOR DIRECTORS, SENIOR MANAGEMENT, OFFICERS AND EMPLOYEES OF MICROMAX INFORMATICS LTD. MICROMAX INFORMATICS LIMITED is committed to conducting its business in accordance with the applicable laws, rules and regulations and with highest standards of business ethics. This code is intended to provide guidance and help in recognizing and dealing with ethical issues, provide mechanisms to report unethical conduct, and to help foster a culture of honesty and accountability. Each Director, senior manager, officer and employee is expected to comply with the letter and spirit of this code. The Directors, senior management, officers and employees of the Company must not only comply with applicable laws, rules and regulations but should also promote honest and ethical conduct of the business. They must abide by the policies and procedures that govern the conduct of the Company’s business. Their responsibilities include helping to create and maintain a culture of high ethical standards and commitment to compliance, and to maintain a work environment that encourages the stakeholders to raise concerns to the attention of the management. A present, overall, contents of this Code are in practice, being already followed by the Directors and the Senior Management, however, in compliance with the new Clause 49 of the listing agreement, the Code as set out below, is to take effect from the date, when approved by the Board in its meeting 1. APPLICABILITY: The Code is applicable to all the members of the Board of Directors, Senior Management, Officers and employees of the Company. Senior Management shall include all executives holding the positions of Director (Non-Board Member/s), Sr. Manager, Managers, Asst. Managers and all head of the departments excluding Board of Directors. Such personnel shall hereinafter be treated as members of its core management team. 2. DILIGENCE: The Directors, senior management, officers and employees are to exercise due diligence in attending to their respective duties and obligations in the best interest of the Company. 3. CONFLICTS OF INTEREST: The Directors, senior management, officers and employees should be scrupulous  in avoiding ‘conflicts of interest’ with the Company. In case there is likely to be a conflict of interest, he/she should make full disclosure of all facts and circumstances thereof to the Board of directors or any Committee / officer nominated for this purpose by the Board and a prior written approval should be obtained. A conflict situation can arise: a. When an employee, officer, senior manager or Director takes action or has interests that may make it difficult to perform his or her work objectively and effectively, b. The receipt of improper personal benefits by a member of his or her family as a result of one’s position in the Company, c. Any outside business activity that detracts an individual’s ability to devote appropriate time and attention to his or her responsibilities with the Company, d. The receipt of non-nominal gifts or excessive entertainment from any person/company with which the Company has current or prospective business dealings, e. Any significant ownership interest in any supplier, customer, development partner or competitor of the Company, f. Any consulting or employment relationship with any supplier, customer, business associate or competitor of the Company. 4. TRANSPARENCY: The Directors and the Senior Management are to ensure that their action/s in the conduct of business are transparent, except where the confidentiality of the business requires otherwise. Such transparency shall be brought through appropriate policies, procedures, and maintaining supporting and proper records. 5. FAIR DEALING: Each director, member of core management team, officer, and employee should deal fairly with customers, suppliers, competitors, and employees of group companies. They should not take unfair advantage of anyone through manipulation, concealment, abuse of confidential, proprietary or trade secret information, misrepresentation of material facts, or any other unfair dealing-practices. 6. HONEST AND ETHICAL CONDUCT: The Directors, senior management, officers and employees shall act in accordance with the highest standards of personal and professional integrity, honesty and ethical conduct not only on Company’s premises and  offsite but also at company sponsored business, social events as well as any places. They shall act and conduct free from fraud and deception. Their conduct shall conform to the best-accepted professional standards of conduct. 7. CORPORATE OPPORTUNITIES: Directors, senior management, officers and employees owe a duty to the Company to advance its legitimate interests when the opportunity to do so arises. Directors, senior management, officers, and employees are expressly prohibited from: a. Taking for themselves personally, opportunities that are discovered through the use of Company’s property, information, or position, b. Competing directly with the business of the Company or with any business that the Company is considering. Using Company’s property, information, or position for personal gain. If the Company has finally decided not to pursue an opportunity that relates to the Company’s business activity, he/she may pursue such activity only after disclosing the same to the Board of directors or the nominated person/committee. 8. BUSINESS INTEGRITY: The Directors and the Senior Management are to ensure that the Company carries out its business as per accepted practices of business integrity, ethical standards, fair play and conduct, honestly, legitimately and as a fair competitor. 9. WORK PLACE: The Directors and the Senior Management are to ensure that there is gender friendly work place, equal opportunities are given to men and women, and there exists good employment practices. 1 0. QUALITY OF PRODUCTS/SERVICES: The Directors and the Senior Management are to endeavor that the products / services of the Company meet the accepted standards of quality including that of ISO 9001 and any other standard/s, and also the specifications of the legal authorities/laws so that customer satisfaction is ensured. Moreover costs are kept reasonable. 11. PROTECTION AND PROPER USE OF COMPANY’S ASSETS: The Directors and the Senior Management are to ensure to protect Company’s assets and property and the same should be used only for legitimate business  purposes. 12. CONFIDENTIALITY: The Directors, Senior Management, Officers and Employees shall maintain the confidentiality of confidential information of the Company or that of any customer, supplier or business associate of the Company to which Company has a duty to maintain confidentiality, except when disclosure is authorized or legally mandated. The Confidential information includes all non-public information (including private, proprietary, and other) that might be of use to competitors or harmful to the Company or its associates. The use of confidential information for his/her own advantage or profit is also prohibited. 13. COMPLIANCE WITH LAWS, RULES, AND REGULATIONS: T he Directors, senior management, officers and employees shall comply with all applicable laws, rules, and regulations. Transactions, directly or indirectly, involving securities of the Company should not be undertaken without pre-clearance from the Company’s compliance officer/Company Secretary. Any Director, member of core management team, officer or employee who is unfamiliar or uncertain about the legal rules involving Company business conducted by him/her should consult the legal department of the Company before taking any action that may jeopardize the Company or that individual. 14. RELATIONSHIP WITH CUSTOMERS AND SUPPLIERS: The Directors and the Senior Management are to endeavor that their dealings with the customers are given due importance, value is created and relationship of trust is built. In dealing with suppliers it should be the endeavor that supplies are based on need, quality, service, price, and appropriate terms and conditions. 15. SHAREHOLDERS: The Directors and the Senior Management are to ensure that the rights of shareholders are met as per law and good corporate practices, and all efforts are made to provide best services to them. 16. COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES: The Directors and the Senior Management are to endeavor that the Company be a trusted corporate citizen and, as an integral part of the Society, fulfills its responsibilities and duties to the societies and communities in which it  operates. 17. CODE OF ETHICS FOR CHIEF FINANCE OFFICER: Honesty, integrity and sound judgment of the senior financial officers is fundamental for the success and reputation of Action Construction Equipment Limited. The professional and ethical conduct of the senior financial officers is essential to the proper functioning of the Company. The senior finance officers as well as Directors of the Company shall be bound by the following code of ethics: 1. Act with honesty and integrity, including the ethical handling of actual or apparent conflicts of interest between personal, financial and professional relationships, 2. Make full, fair, accurate, timely, and understandable disclosure in reports and documents that the Company files with, or submits or makes periodically, to the shareholders, government authorities, and to the public, 3. Comply with governmental laws, rules, notifications and regulations applicable to the Company’s business, 4. Disclose to the Board or any committee/officer designated by the Board for this purpose, any material transaction or relationship that reasonably could be expected to give rise to any violations of the code including actual or apparent conflicts with the interests of the company, 5. Promote prompt reporting of violations of the Code of Ethics to the Board of Directors or any person/committee designated for this purpose, as may be necessary, 6. Respect the confidentiality of information acquired in the course of employment unless legally obliged to disclose and ensure that no such confidential information is used for personal advantage/benefit, 7. Maintain the skills necessary and relevant to the Company’s needs, 8. Act in good faith, responsibility, with due care, competence and diligence without misrepresenting material facts, 9. Refrain from any inappropriate or undue influence of any kind in all dealings with independent auditors, and avoid any actual or apparent conflicts with analysts, 10. Achieve responsible use of and control over all assets and resources employed or entrusted to them, 11. Promote ethical and honest behavior within the Company and its associates, Chief Finance Officer should adhere to both the code of business conduct and the code of ethics of the Company. Violation of the code of ethics will lead to appropriate disciplinary action including dismissal from the services of the Company any  deviation/waiver from this code can only be affected on the sole and absolute discretionary authority of the Board or any person/committee designated by the Board for this purpose. 18. INTERPRETATION OF CODE: Any question or interpretation under this Code of Ethics and Business Conduct will be handled by the Board or any person /committee authorized by the Board of the Company. The Board of Directors or any designated person/committee has the authority to waive compliance with this Code of business conduct for any Director, member of core management team, officer or employee of the Company. The person-seeking waiver of this Code shall make full disclosure of the particular circumstances to the Board or the designated person/ committee 19. COMPLIANCE WITH THE CODE OF CONDUCT: Compliance with this Code of Conduct is an obligation. The Directors and the Senior Management are to ensure that this Code is communicated to, and understood and observed by all employees. The Directors and the Senior Management shall affirm compliance with the Code, on an annual basis. The Board expects employees to bring to their attention, or to that of Senior Management, any breach or suspected breach of this Code. Compliance with this Code is subject to the review by the Board and complemented by the Audit Committee of the Board. Any modification/s, amendment/s, or review of this Code shall be done by the Board.

Managing Financial Resources and Decisions Assignment - 2

Managing Financial Resources and Decisions - Assignment Example It summarizes all of the revenue and expense items of the firm and presents the final result in term of profit and loss, for a given period of time. Financial statements are prepared to present and record information regarding the financial position of a firm at a given point in time, to show performance of the firm during the particular period, and to depict changes in performance during that period. This information is used by the different users of financial statements to make their decisions. 5. Impact of Inflation:- Financial statements do not account for the impact of inflation hence â€Å"Cannot be a true reflection of growth where the economy is infected with a high level of inflation†. [IBP 2011] 7. Measurability:- Financial statements only record the information that is measureable and do not account for qualitative characteristics and assets and efficiency, competence of workforce and goodwill etc. suitable option available to Paul and Sarah’s. Moreover another benefit of using this option according to Boyneclarke .com is that â€Å"you relinquish no control over your business.† [http://www.boyneclarke.com/ resources/entry/sources-of-business-financing] so investing personal savings will also secure control of the partners on their business and will result in avoiding many managerial and regulatory complexities. Both of the partners Paul and Sarah can invest their personal savings at any agreed ratio into the business to finance its expansion. Paul and Sarah’s. They can add new partners into their business who can provide required financing, moreover if they succeed in adding a competent business partner then it can not only provide financing but also can provide business acumen and can help in administration. it is an equity investment so entails high risk, so venture capital organizations require high expected rate of return on their investment, as

Human Resources Re-Engineering Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Human Resources Re-Engineering - Research Paper Example We are the business." Competitive pressure is the main reason for the above phenomenon. As a point of start, instead of imposing rules, it would fetch a better result if the process is started right from knowing what others (employees) want. Also, according to Ulrich, Smallwood and Sweetman (2007), "Being an effective leader starts with self." Employees should take up the responsibility of streamlining the Human Resources as a business partner and the top management should create the necessary ambience atmosphere. A proper intersection of people and business will certainly yield sustainable human capital resources of the organization, as per Ulrich, Brockbank HR can be linked with profitability metrics. They may either partner with Audit staff or give directions for hiring requirement or they can partner with sales & marketing team and work in designing and negotiating health care programs. In order to carry on this process effectively, develop a leadership program that includes hands of training of all functional disciplines and insist HR staff to receive basic training on financials so that they can understand impact of cash flow, receivables, billing cycles etc. Encourage them to participate in sales strategies, customer visits, technology reviews etc. Hold all members accountable for achieving the company's critical numbers and include HR employees as full business partners. Following is the example of my current company where 5 of the positions can be re-engineered (according to me) to allow for reductions in work force availability. Here are the total 16 total positions currently in our company. General Manager (1 position), Marketing Manager (1 position), HR Manager (1 position), Accounts Lead (1 position), Sales & Marketing (3 positions), Auditing (2 position), Recruiting & Training (3 positions), Payroll Staff (1 position), Accounts Assistants (3 positions). According to the explanation above, HR teams can be partnered with other departments and necessary changes can be made. Recruiting & Training team can be partnered with Sales & Marketing team and gradually, the total 6 positions can be reduced to 4. Clubbing of Recruiting and Marketing team helps in collaboratively working "within the company" & what is needed "outside the company." Auditing staff can be partnered with payroll and accounting staff and the total number may be changed from 6 to 4. This combination is because of the similarity between finance and accounts. My current role is one among a team of 3 in Sales & Marketing. There is a potential chance of my position getting disturbed with the above re-engineering. However, for the overall well being of the company, I feel this is the right approach. Also, as long as I am good performer, my position shall be definitely safe. References The HR Value Proposition by David Ulrich and Wayne Brockbank (2005) The Leadership Code: Five Rules to Lead By by Dave Ulrich, Norm Smallwood, and Kate

Genetic Modified Foods (Cons) Speech or Presentation

Genetic Modified Foods (Cons) - Speech or Presentation Example Many of the disadvantages associated with the GM foods are realized in environmental, medical and economic respects. The speech will seek to address the disadvantages of GM foods in a manner that would be appropriate to my three sets of audiences. It should be realized that these three sets of audiences have their own sets of reservations with respect to GM foods, and this forms the basis of their antipathy (McHughen, 2009). Environmentalists are normally concerned with the preservation of the flora and fauna across the world and greatly opposing any human activity that interferes with the functioning of the natural world. In this case, nature should be left to take its own course without destroying it. Environmentalists have associated GM foods with cases of mortality realized in certain organisms. One study revealed that butterfly caterpillars were highly susceptible to pollen from certain types of GM foods. It is said that the modified crops produced several kinds of toxins which greatly affect organisms in contact with them. In this case, my speech on the disadvantages of GM foods to the environmentalists will basically focus on the use of facts and evidence to bring out the effects of GM crops on the organisms such as plants and insects (Ruse & Castle, 2002). The focus of genetical engineering is to transfer genes from one crop to another. However, it is often realized that certain crops which were not really targeted by the gene transfer are also affected in the process. As such, the natural environment is affected as crops gain certain characteristics which are not really intended. In several areas where genetically modified crops are grown, several farmers always complain that their crops are cross-pollinated by the genetically modified crops. In the end, the genes are spread from one crop to another, which might eventually affect the characteristics of the natural crops. The speech to the environmentalists will, therefore, focus on many examples of the effects of GM foods on the natural habitat (Smith, 2007). To the health experts, the focus is the effect of the GM foods on the health of the human beings who consume it. In this regard, much research has been conducted in order to determine the health effects of GM foods. Much of this research has led to several realizations while there is still much to be uncovered. In any case, it should be realized that some of the health effects of GM foods might not be evident in the short run. It has been confirmed that many children across the developed world have at one time developed risky allergy conditions after consuming certain types of peanuts and other foods produced through genetical means (Wendy, 2005). This is a result of the genetical process in which the introduction of a new gene in the crops leads to the formation of a new allergen which causes reactions in the humans (Smith, 2007). The GM foods are generally associated with different types of allergies most of which are life threatening. My speech to the health experts would, therefore, revolve around the health issues of GM foods and provide classic cases of how these foods have caused great challenges in this respect. Apart from the known effects, there is still much information to be discovered on the effects of GM foods on human health. In this case, it is safer to avoid using such foods until much of the information has been obtained and

Cloning (Argument Synthesis) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Cloning (Argument Synthesis) - Essay Example With the advent of Dolly, cloning became the major topic in debates. Liberal scientists suppose that: "cloning gives an opportunity to remake mankind in an image of health, it is the ultimate expression of man's unlimited potential" (Human Reproduction and therapeutic cloning, 2005). In reality, while the cloning of animals, for commercial as well as scientific purposes, is now fairly widespread, the cloning of a developed human being (with predicted dates that regularly recede) has yet to take place. Cloning helps scientists to investigate and understand functions of stem cells and invent new medical treatment methods for such diseases as cancer, diabetes, HIV/AIDS, hemophilia, sickle cell anemia, etc. "Therapeutic cloning will allow them to create organs that are a perfect match for those in need of a transplant" (Human Reproduction and therapeutic cloning, 2005). The use of cloning for therapeutic purposes is important to creating one person solely for the sake of another. Stem cells have a special property - they are undifferentiated. That is to say, stem cells have not taken on the special properties and functions of liver cells, heart cells, skin cells, and so on. But they can become differentiated, and take on these properties. This makes them useful. Stem cells can thus be used to repair organic damage, to recreate parts of the human body that are diseased or malfunctioning. Thus they present people with new therapeutic possibilities, several of which have already been im pressively demonstrated - bone marrow transplants to regenerate a healthy blood system in patients with leukaemia, for instance ('Seeing double: the cloning conundrum' 4). Another argument "for" cloning is that animal cloning is succeed, and it means that the technique of animal cloning becomes far more precise and effective and its extension to human beings very much less likely to go wrong. The cloning of humans is an extension of techniques developed for the cloning of animals, and whereas the cloning of plants is simple, the cloning of animals is not. Nevertheless, the inefficiency argument rests on contingent facts, and it is in the nature of contingent facts that they can change. "If they are successful, engineered stem cells may eventually provide a way of permanently curing most, if not all genetically determined diseases of the blood and circulatory system" (Grace 40). Opponents of cloning state that everything turns on the potential impact, for good or ill, on human beings. The result of cloning is often the creation of animals with radical defects and deformities, many of which emerge only as the animal grows. In short, suffering creatures are brought into existence. For this created suffering, as for suffering inflicted, morally responsible behavior requires a justification. The form of this justification is clear - the suffering is outweighed by the benefits. The main problem with cloning is that results are often unstable. It is not always appreciated that even yet the actual business of producing laboratory generated animals is very much a hit and miss affair. Of course it can be said, that

About Capital Asset Pricing Model Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

About Capital Asset Pricing Model - Essay Example CAPM holds that investors are operating in a perfectly capital market and all securities are valued accurately. If we plot the returns on the Security Market Line than none of the returns will be above or below the SML Line. A perfect capital market assumes that information is freely available to all the investors who have homogenous expectations. Secondly, the model assumes that the assets are infinitely divisible. This assumption emphasizes that investors can take any position in investment. For instance, they can buy $1 worth of stock of Intel Corporation. The third assumption about CAPM is that personal taxes are not present which implies that returns generated in the form of dividends or capital gains are not taxed. The fourth assumption is that individual investors do not have power to affect the prices of stocks by the action of their buying and selling rather it is determined in total by their actions. The fifth assumption is that investors make decision based on expected returns or risk, the other factors such as behavioral finance is not accounted to it. The sixth assumption is that there is no restriction on amount of short sales; individuals are free to conduct as many short sales transaction as possible. The seventh and the most stringent assumption is that investors are given the choice to borrow or lend unlimit ed amount of money at the risk free rate. The eighth assumption deals with the homogeneity of the investors’ expectations which mean that all the investors have defined their relative period of investment in exactly the same manner. The final assumption withholds that all the assets are marketable whether they be financial or non-financial such as human capital. CAPM has its roots build on the model of portfolio developed by Markowitz in late 50’s. According to the Markowitz’s model of â€Å"Mean-Variance analysis†, the investors are risk averse and will prefer more return on the same level of

Research for the Environment Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Research for the Environment - Coursework Example Availability of these organisms out of disturbed areas is sources for the ecosystem’s decolonization. Animal behavior and migration helps in managing the ecosystem since the traits of the animals are distinct. Many wildlife species are threatened with extinction, with species disappearing faster than before. The biggest threat is habitat destruction and human greed. Wildlife maintains ecological nature balance and cycles. It has economic value as wild plants provide timber and paper (Carson, 2012). Wild animals produce ivory. A country’s wildlife is its cultural asset and tourist attraction. Pesticides kill bacteria, fungi and insects that destroy crops, are disease vectors, destroy property and cause disturbances. The greatest risk comes from the chemical pesticides. Pesticides may enter the body through skin, eyes or mouth. Farming companies make these pesticides no matter how inept they hurt the environment and the people around (Brian, 2012). Thus, it is advisable to use healthful methods to control pests such as use of organic

Of Mice and Men is a novel about people Essay Example for Free

Of Mice and Men is a novel about people Essay Of Mice and Men is a novel about people. Are there too many cripples, misfits and unusual characters in the novel to consider Steinbecks portrayal as true life? Steinbecks novel is based on ordinary people during the American Depression. Steinbeck has an understanding of how migrant workers were and how it was as he had his childhood in California near Salinas Valley. During the period in which the novel was wrote was written migrant workers went from ranch to ranch working for money never really having a secure job as new technology in machinery made it cheaper to harvest crops. This introduces the two main characters George and Lennie, migrant workers, who do not fit into 1930s society. The novel based is on characters that represent different walks of life during the period illustrating the American culture. Steinbeck portrays the American culture in a condensed version occurring only on a ranch, showing the grim truces of the society, when the novel was written In Steinbecks novel the character Candy is a man who has gone past his prime of his life. He has a stumped hand and therefore he is too maimed to be working in the fields, he can be seen as a cripple in the novel. The result of this is that he has menial job as a swamper. To represent the fears of time Steinbeck writes about Candy being worried about getting the can as a result of his unimportance on the ranch, and this is shown when Steinbeck wrote I aint much good with ony hand. I lost my hand right here on this ranch. Thats why they give me a job swampin This suggests that the job was only given to Candy out of sympathy. Furthermore Candy saying I aint much good shows his awareness of his own situation, being worthless to the ranch. Candy represents the aged sector that exists in every society, at the time the novel was written work was very scarce and if people were employed they would have to work hard to say in work. Candy as an aged person is on his last job, because if he loses it no one else will take him on. This is his major fear throughout the novel and Steinbeck portrays the aged migrant worker as a pathetic man with only a dog to keep him company. Steinbeck writes Candy looked a long time at Slim to try and find some reversal The above statement suggests that Candy has no authority with the other workers on the ranch and needs Slim to assist him; this shows Candy, as a cripple, has no respect from the other characters, which is a portrayal of true life during the American Depression. With the dog eat dog world of the period skill, strength, intelligence, age and skin colour affected authority. Candy has a change of attitude after hearing about the dream soon after his dog was shot, Steinbeck choosing to write the dream being heard by Candy at this point in the novel when the character had lost everything that was important, gives the cripple hope for the future as his past (with his dog) is finished. Sadly the dog is a symbol of his possible future, the fate of the aged. In a time of mass unemployment and the fear of loneliness compels Candy to latch himself onto a belief to persevere in the harsh lonely world and this gives Candy the renewed confidence. Steinbeck shows the change of Candys attitude after he hears about the dream, Candy joined the attack with joy Glove fulla Vaseline, he said disgustedly. This quote enhances the change in the character of Candy, as before he did not say anything in general conversation between the workers and at this point he was important. The verb attack shows Candys aggression against Curley, who has a higher status than Candy and is more important to the running of the ranch and is the bosses son, not a cripple and stronger. The adjective disgustedly in the quote shows that Candy is sickened by Curley and Curleys attitude to others and Candy himself. This shows Candy is more than a cripple in the story, but a character who needs an image of a better future for himself with no worries. The dream of getting a ranch of their own is the need for some security can be compared as a pension in a modern view. Once Candy has this security in the dream Steinbeck enhances the character making him bolder, and his character comes out from the shell of an old cripple. In chapter two Steinbeck introduces the reader to the character of Crooks. The name Crooks is not used for him at the start of the novel and it is only later on that he is called Crooks. The names used for him are derogatory labels including stable buck, nigger and Crooks. Throughout the whole novel the reader never finds out the characters real name, which adds to the effectiveness of the character being a misfit. Steinbeck enhances the idea of Crooks being a misfit when he writes They let the nigger come in. Little skinner name of Smitty took after the nigger. Done pretty good, too This depicts that the other characters do not see Crooks a real human being but as an object of entertainment. Steinbeck conveys how a black man fits into the society of the period through racism. Crooks is a misfit in the novel because of his skin colour and his physical appearance, because of this he is segregated from the other workers on the ranch. This can be shown by They let the nigger come in this implies that the others do not want to be around him and that it is an important event when he does. The above quote can also suggest that Crooks wants to be sociable with the others and the word let suggests that the character has tried before. His injury to his back illustrates to the reader that he can be put into a category with Candy, as a cripple. The connection between the two is deeper than them both have a disability. Steinbeck brings them both together in chapter 4 at the start of the novel when he writes Yeah. Nice fella, too. Candy is shown to have a high regards and respect for him; Steinbeck puts them in the same situation in the novel. Candy and Crooks as cripples both need to belong to something as there is always the threat of getting the can or a similar consequence to of Candys dog. One may think that Steinbeck was trying to portray a bridge across racism in the period with a white man and black man wanting the same dream. As Crooks changes his view in the novel from being a defensive one to felling some hope about the dream too. At first Crooks attitude to little piece of land in his head is an objectionable because society has made him pessimistic and spiteful to any sign of others having some dream of happiness knowing that he can not have any because of race. However when he hears about the money he is more open and suggests he wants to be apart of it, this can be shown when Steinbeck wrote If you guys would want a hand to work for nothing- just his keep This quotes conveys Crooks hope in the dream and he wants to be apart of it to be secure and treated as an equal. The reader learns a valuable lesson from Crooks and Steinbeck portrays it effectively that society is in the wrong not that the characters. Steinbeck illustrates Crooks as being a proud son of a bitch with his tidy room but this does not make just a misfit or a cripple but he has humanity with all other blacks. Thats why a lot of time is devoted to him in the novel, his role is equally important to the social statement made by Steinbeck. The end of this key chapter with Crooks in, chapter 4, unhappily ends how it began with Crooks rubbing medicine into his back, this is a powerful message put across to the audience which may evoke the reader to think that society will not change unless we change society. Crooks had briefly gained some respect from other white males and had hope for the future, but it is when this happens that a women shattered his hopes, this would be terrible to Crooks because women were thought to be lower and weaker than men, so being put down by Curleys wife made him worth nothing, just like during the beginning of this chapter. A character that is, in essence, unusual is Curleys Wife. She is unusual because she is the only female character who speaks in this novel. Steinbecks portrayal of women in this novel is not in a good light, given that the men go to a brothel. Women typically represented as objects of sexual nature not as partners or equals but as. Curleys Wife is unusual in a way that she is the only women on a ranch full of men going around dressed to seduce, this can be shown in She had full, rouged lips and wide-spaced eyes, heavily made up. Her fingernails were red. Steinbeck suggests that she is trouble by all the red in the description, with red bringing up connotations of danger. The red also can connote seduction. Steinbecks character has a habit of looking for her husband which can suggest that she is lonely and is constantly seeking attention from the other men, another reason for dressing up seductively is to conceal her loneliness, Steinbeck includes her in the novel to portray the American housewife, wanting to be something more than a housewife. This was typical during this period of social change with Hollywood and women becoming celebrities, which is exciting compared to a life on the ranch. Steinbeck effectively portrays this in He says he was gonna put me in the movies. Says I was a natural. This implies to the reader that she wanted something more to her life than to be stuck on a ranch. This however makes her a misfit on the ranch in the novel because of her wanting a different dream to come true, but during that period people were fascinated about celebrities so the character of Curleys Wife can represent the womens struggle during the American Depression. We learn from the novel that society during that period was male orientated and that women were beginning to have their own dreams other than finding a good man to marry. Throughout the whole novel the reader is aware of Lennie being a misfit in the novel. When the reader is first introduced to this character his physical description suggests that he is misfit large pale eyes can connote the lack of intelligence, giving the sense of subdued expression, the adjective large agrees with the stature of Lennie, though the adjective pale implies the mindlessness of him. The other characters in the novel who are misfits, unusual characters or cripples have a physical or emotional problem but Lennie as one of the lead characters is different with an intelligence problem; this engages the readers sympathy as Lennie is every childlike. Steinbeck writes about the childlike behaviour of Lennie in Lennie was still smiling with delight at the memory of the ranch This quote depicts Lennies lack of social skills, like a child, which gets the character into a trouble that wouldnt have really happened in the novel if the character was not a misfit, such as what happened in Weed where he stroked the womens dress not knowing that he was doing something wrong and ended up being outcast and hunted. Steinbecks 1930s society is not tolerant of Lennie and his disability to handle a difficult social problem. Society when this novel was written is not an understanding one and Steinbeck dramatically portrays this by the fight in the novel. Steinbeck shows the reader during that period people acted too rash and unsympathetic, and Steinbeck with this novel wants people to take notice of society and for it to be more tolerant to misfits, cripples and in a sense unusual characters. Steinbeck leaves the ending of Lennie at a moderately neutral point of view; this lets one make up ones mind to know that its a tragedy. On one side that it is a tragedy that Steinbecks characters have no acknowledgment of Lennie killing Curleys Wife by accident and that he has no understanding of death and his own strength. On the other side some readers may believe that Lennie should be shot because he killed a human, even with his lack of intelligence it still make him a danger to society. Steinbeck writes his death in the place where Lennie suits best throughout the whole novel, in nature Suddenly Lennie appeared out of the brush, and he came as silently as a creeping bear moves. This quote implies that Lennie suited the environment that he was in, and the metaphor a creeping bear moves is a powerful one. In addition, it conveys the character to be almost part of nature and if he was never meant for society. As a result of this, the reader may think it is less of a tragedy as Lennie dies where he belongs. Steinbeck portrays the purpose of Lennies character of being the character that allows people to have a dream. Lennie is the one to console in and not to put down people, because he has no real understanding of how the world works. Candy and Crooks benefit from having time with Lennie as Candy has someone to talk too furthermore ensuring Candy a no opposition to joining the dream, which may not have occurred if Lennie was not a misfit to society. Crooks has someone to talk to without no prejudice as it because of Lennie being unintelligent, he did not understand the concept of racism. Lastly, Lennie ensured Curleys Wife finally got someone to talk to in the novel. Steinbecks misfit Lennie shows the flaws in society that needs to be exposed in true life. If there were more people like Lennie on the ranch (society) there would be more empathy towards others and their feelings and there wouldnt be feelings of superiority other one another. George and Lennie have a friendship that is not typical of the period in which the novel was set. Two men travelling around together and working together was unheard of, the American Depression saw people distant themselves from each other. With no security, men chose not to trust each other. Steinbeck depicts this effectively throughout the whole novel. This relationship is not typical of the era, Steinbeck shows this when he writes Guys like us, that work on the ranches, are the loneliest guys in the world. They got no family. They dont belong no place. This illustrates the stereotype of the migrant worker making this unusual relationship out of place in the novel and Steinbeck wanted to show this by the effects of their relationship upon the characters. The relationship being not of true life has a sense of inevitable doom to it. Steinbeck depicts the relationship to draw other characters to it so that they can belong even though the friendship creates suspicion in; He hooked his thumbs in his belt and squinted one eye nearly closed This expresses to the reader the Boss had never seen it before and that thinks it trouble, with squinted one eye the verb creates suspicion. This clearly emphasis the idea, that the relationship sparks the plot with eventually, Lennie killing Curleys Wife. Perhaps Steinbeck shows this because he is making a social statement on the period where people just can not trust in one another or be emotionally close to each other, with out anything going wrong. George and Lennies relationship shows one how much empathy and understanding one man can have in another. Against everyone being antagonistic to the relationship George stuck by Lennie until he could no more. Steinbecks characters have a friendship that is destroyed by the attitudes in society of the period. In conclusion to this essay, Steinbeck has wrote misfits, unusual characters and cripples in Of Mice and Men to show the faults and prejudices during the 1930s American depression, in which the novel was written. Steinbecks characters portray different aspects to the life in the period. Crooks represents the life of a black man having to struggle through life being worth nothing because of skin colour, whilst Curleys Wife represents how a women struggles in a male dominant society, the male dominant society being the ranch itself. Candy symbolises the aged in the period, being old is being useless and unwanted. Though the novel has misfits, unusual characters and cripples they would not have as much affect if they were not contrast to the more stereotypical characters of the period. Curley and Carlson show the reader the bleak and lonely lives migrant workers had. The contrast has a bigger and more meaningful social statement made by Steinbeck. The writer effectively shows this at the end of the novel. Now what the hell ya suppose is eatin them two guys? This enhances the social statement made by Steinbeck, with Slim consoling George but the other more usual characters, Curley and Carlson, not coming together after the whole plot Steinbeck keeps them apart and socially distant, unaware of the situation George is in. the novel is also concluded within the novel where the image of the water snake an the heron. The whole novel is summarised, with the calmness to the heron snatching the water snake. Steinbeck implies this animal image that humans in a society live like animals and how that we have not evolved to be more tolerable of peoples differences; the consequence of this is Lennies death. Steinbeck conveys marvellously that this will keep transpiring as the heron returns to the pool to catch another water snake.

Lessons taught by Sonny and Cher Essay Example for Free

Lessons taught by Sonny and Cher Essay My parents to me have always been well, mom and dad. We lived in a world of routine where mornings would be filled with rushed breakfasts of bagels, cereal, coffee and juice. A hurried hi mom and dad, bye mom and dad! was all I could squeeze out while grabbing some toast before heading out the door. Dinner conversations were usually Hows school? and Fine. I had just entered high school then and I had many important things on the days agenda. I never quite realized how much my fixation on everything me, myself and I almost led me to miss out on knowing two of the most remarkable people Ive ever had the honor of knowing. I came home from school early one afternoon to find my mom leafing through some albums in the den. She mustnt have heard me come in for she fairly jumped out of her skin when I asked her what she was doing. Oh geez! You scared me! she said. These albums? Oh nothing, I was just looking at some photos of your dad and I from the old days. I picked up one album and was surprised to find myself staring at a photo of mom and dad dressed as Sonny and Cher at what looked like a Halloween party†¦the shocking thing was that Dad was the one dressed as Cher. Sure, I know how normal it is for some couples to dress up like that for costume parties and all but you see, my parents were not like that (at least I thought they werent. ) Here was a guy who was usually hidden behind the morning paper at breakfast and was usually quietly parked in front of the evening news after dinner dressed in a long blond wig and shiny dress. It was†¦well, shocking! Mom must have noticed some reaction in me for she cocked her head at me and with a quizzical eyebrow asked Whats the matter? You look like youve seen a ghost! Is that really you and dad? I asked Yep, and believe me, it took a lot of effort to find a dress that fit your dad, mom said blushing to the roots of her graying hair. Sensing my incredulity, she looked at me and grinned What? Oh come on, you didnt really think we started life on this earth as mom and dad did you? Well, yeah! I said. Oh all right, that may have sounded a bit stupid but hey, I think its a fairly normal thought for kids who come into this world and knowing people a just mom or dad. I spent the rest of the afternoon with mom leafing through the rest of the albums. I dont know if it was just beautiful weather outside or maybe the effect of afternoon sunlight filtering through the window shades but it seemed to me that mom looked younger and certainly more relaxed as we drank the Kool-aid she prepared and munched on some cookies while we looked at some more pictures. She showed me albums from her and dads college days. I never knew that dad actually played basketball in college or that mom was one of those hippies with long fringed vests and flowing hair. Looking at dad with his very proper business attire and glasses and mom whose hair has always been neatly pulled back since I could remember, I could hardly make the connection between them and the two grinning faces on the photographs. Another things is that while I knew my parents loved each other, to sit there and look at photos of a younger mom smiling up at my dads face just brought made that love real for me. I asked Dad seems to be a lot of fun in those days. How come he seems so serious now? What happened? Honey, nothing changed. You are hardly ever around to observe us let alone talk to us, mom pointed out. Perhaps Dad may seem quiet in those times that you are around but believe me, hes still got that devilish sense of humor I fell in love with and married him for. Maybe if you spent a little more time with us rather than talking on the phone or rushing out of the house, youd get to know us more, she added. Ouch. That evening I watched Dad as he prepared to take his usual place in front of the TV. He must have sensed something was up for he looked up at me and asked, What are you skulking around in the dark for? Out with it. Clutching the Sonny and Cher photo in my hand, I timidly made my way to him and held out the picture. Dad, I said. Is that really you? He stared at the picture gravely and let out a huge sigh. Yeah, that was me†¦and boy do I remember how much the high heels that went with that crazy dress cut into my feet! and he just burst out laughing. A giggling mom soon joined us and they regaled me with stories of how that particular party went and how moms sonny beard kept slipping and falling into her wine. Dad was laughing himself silly as he recounted the horror on his dads face as he came down the stairs of their home with the long wig, strappy heels, false lashes and all. I thought the old man was going to have a heart attack! Dad managed to get in between snickers. I dont think Ive ever seen my dad so animated or mom so carefree before that night. Since that day, I began to look at my parents in a different light. I realized that I have forgotten how my parents were actually two unique individuals who had their own lives and personalities outside of their roles as mom and dad. I dont know if this was just because I was too prejudiced against the parental institution (as most teens are) or just too preoccupied with my own things to notice them. But that soon changed. From that day on, I started noticing small cues they shared such as mom having a special way of tucking her hair behind her ear whenever dad gave her a compliment and how dad would sort of twitch his nose when hes about to beg off from accompanying mom to the sales. I also observed how mom could be much easier to talk to in the mornings while dad would be grumpy until he has had his usual two cups of coffee for breakfast. Afternoons would see mom winding down while dad would be more relaxed in the evenings. Since then I can honestly say that my relationship with my parents became much closer. While theyre still mom and dad, I learned to recognize and respect them for the individuals they are. I realize how people and personal identities can get so lost in the titles and roles that people play in life. Since what happened with my parents, Ive been able to look at other people I came in contact with as who and not what they are. I began to pay closer attention to people. For instance, I noticed how one cashier at the 7-11 near my house would pay extra attention to her elderly customers, always sending them off with their purchases with a smile†¦a smile that would be returned by the patrons whose day she has brightened up with that simple gesture. The doorman at one of the buildings I usually passed on my way to school would usually have a fresh flower at his lapel and would cheerily greet everyone And how are you doing today? I must admit that even I felt buoyed by such cheerfulness. Quite a few years have passed since that fateful day with the albums. My parents are looking more mature (mom would kill me if I said older) and some things in the old neighborhood have certainly changed. But I will never forget the valuable lesson that a simple photo has taught me in looking beyond the roles people play and recognizing people for the individuals that they are. I truly owe Sonny and Cher a lot.

Prevention and Control of Locally Endemic Diseases

Prevention and Control of Locally Endemic Diseases Worldwide, countries are facing various public health problems but at unequal intensity. Low and middle-income countries are more suffering from high burden of disease than developed countries (Lopez et al., 2006). Public health issues in the world have existed for hundreds of years and to cope with them different interventions from different people have been put in place and have been improved over time depending upon new health-related discoveries. In September 1978, World Health Organisation in collaboration with The United Nations Childrens Fund organised the famous International Conference on Primary Healthcare in Alma-Ata, former Soviet Union, where 3000 delegates from various national governments and international bodies convened to find new ways of dealing with public health setbacks. This conference was a landmark in the promotion of population health around the world given the introduction of the theme of Health for All with the slogan Health for All by the Year 2000 (Wooding, Nagaddya Nakaggwa, 2012). In the Declaration issued at the end of the conference, Primary Healthcare was defined as essential healthcare based on practical, scientifically sound and socially acceptable methods and technology made universally accessible to individuals and families in the community through their full participation and at cost that the community and country can afford to maintain at every stage of their development in the spirit of self-reliance and self-determination (World Health Organisation, 1978). In this essay, with relevant examples, the explicit meaning of this definition will be discussed. Later on, gaps and lessons drawn from the conceptualisation and implementation of Primary Healthcare in Rwanda will be identified. Finally, the relevance of Primary Healthcare in the Rwandan health system will be examined. A.EXPLICIT MEANING OF DEFINITION OF PRIMARY HEALTHCARE ACCORDING TO WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION The definition of primary healthcare, as it was issued in the Alma-Ata Conference Declaration, was general and needed some precisions and common understanding to avoid any misinterpretation. To fully grasp the explicit meaning of primary healthcare, as was defined by the World Health Organisation, it worth, firstly, to break it into basic terms: A.1.Primary healthcare as essential and appropriate activities for promoting the health of the population Primary healthcare is a set of activities aimed at promoting the health status of the population. Through these activities, prevailing health problems that the community suffer are addressed properly by providing promotive, preventive, curative and rehabilitative services (World Health Organisation, 1978). World Health Organisation (1978) states that the essential services that primary healthcare would provide were : education on prevailing diseases and the ways of preventing and controlling them; promotion of food supply and proper nutrition; maternal and child healthcare including family planning; adequate supply of safe water and basic sanitation; immunisation against major infectious diseases; prevention and control of local endemic diseases, appropriate treatment of common diseases and injuries; and provision of essential drugs. These services were expected to vary according to the country and community provided their economic and social aspects that they reflect and from which they evolve and health system had the social responsibility to avail essential healthcare to all (World Health Organisation, 1978). A.1.1.Education on prevailing diseases and the methods of preventing and controlling them This component of primary healthcare aims to support personal and community social development by informing them through education for health. The enhancement of their life skills leads to behaviour change at individual or collective level in order to tackle health problems prevailing in their community. Additionally, this activity makes people aware of other factors that determine their overall health like environmental factors, lifestyle and genetics. As a result, people are empowered to have informed options to have control over their own health and over those factors determining their health status. Various ways are used ranging from mass media tools to simple messages transmitted to individuals or to the community regarding the strategies to fight against common diseases in their communities (Wooding, Nagaddya Nakaggwa, 2012). Further, health educational materials can be developed, supplied in the schools by those working in education sector to be integrated in health system. To illustrate this activity in the community, the strategies regarding the prevention of malaria should include the education on what is malaria, its causes, signs and symptoms of the disease, treatment and preventive measures in place. A.1.2.Promotion of food supply and proper nutrition The Promotion of food supply and proper nutrition in the families and in the community in general is a cornerstone in fighting against ill-health. Under nutrition and micronutrients deficiencies mostly in women in reproductive age and children largely contribute to a global burden of disease (Caulfield al., 2006). A.1.3.Maternal and child health including family planning Maternal and child morbidity and mortality rates, mostly in resource limited countries, are still high and more action is needed to tackle this public health issue. Women and childrens deaths are attributed to the causes which in many cases are preventable and avoidable through collaboration of various stakeholders (Wooding, Nagaddya Nakaggwa, 2012). A.1.4.Adequate supply of safe water and improved sanitation This component of primary healthcare ensures that population has not only access to safe and clean water but also to clean environment. The role of contaminated water and environment in spreading diseases is known. The supply of safe and adequate water, sanitation and disposal of liquid and solid waste play a key role preventing diseases transmission (Howard et al., 2002). A.1.5.Immunisation program against major diseases Immunisation against major diseases plays a key role in preventing serious contagious diseases mostly in children like Tuberculosis, measles, tetanus, whooping cough, etc .Women in reproductive age are also vaccinated for Tetanus. A.1.6. Prevention and control of local endemic diseases Some persisting diseases in a community contribute to the burden of disease and are attributable to the increasing morbidity and mortality in many countries. Regular screening and appropriate treatment of these diseases done by skilled healthcare workforce with appropriate health technology are key to the control of them (Wooding, Nagaddya Nakaggwa, 2012). A.1.7. Appropriate treatment of common diseases and injuries This component of primary healthcare deals with the treatment of common diseases and injuries that members of the community suffer. These diseases include common infectious diseases that prevails in the community, skin lesions due to injuries, infections or other disease conditions that affect the skin all of which contribute to the burden of disease. A.1.8.Provision of essential drugs The provision of essential drugs contributes greatly in effective management of common pathological conditions in the community. They are of an utmost importance in preventing and treating diseases which have a greater impact on lives of millions of people around the world. Essential drugs save lives and improve health (Balkan et al., 2013). A.2.Primary healthcare as essential activities based on practical, scientifically sound and socially acceptable methods and technology To achieve its ultimate goal, which is better health for all, primary healthcare should be evidence-guided. Primary healthcare practice has to be based on scientifically-proved methods, techniques, equipments and drugs (World Health Organisation, 1978). To avert health problems, various methods, techniques, equipments and drugs are used in prevention, diagnosis, treatment of diseases and patient rehabilitation once the disease in treated. Selection of health technology to be used has not to be only based on scientific evidences but also on its affordability and acceptability in the context of local value, culture and belief (World Health Organisation, 2011). For example, primary healthcare providers should use those healthcare technologies that enable clients to have access to high quality, safe and cost-effective healthcare. A.3.Primary healthcare should be made universally accessible to individuals and families in the community All members of the community should equally and universally have access to health services regardless of their social economic standing, religion, sex, age, race, language or geographic location and to ensure that it is effectively achieved, the concept of equity should be taken into consideration. The availability of health services itself is not the assurance that the primary healthcare would be successful. There are other components to be addressed to ensure that health services made universally accessible are appropriately used by all members of the community. World Health Organisation (1978) recommended that states government should make use of available resources effectively by increasing the funds allocated for health and firstly giving priority to the extension of primary healthcare to disadvantaged communities. Countries should make sure that all barriers including social economic barriers are properly addressed by reducing exclusion and social economic disparities to help those in need to have access to health services. A.4.Primary healthcare should involve full participation of community members at a cost that the community and the country can afford to maintain at every stage of their development in the spirit of self-reliance and self-determination The participation of communities in primary healthcare care activities forms an integral part in the health system. Central level should take into consideration the role of communities that play in primary healthcare activities planning process. To achieve this, communities have to be enabled to understand their role, especially in primary healthcare strategies and in the development process at community level in general, by providing with them the guidance and the necessary information that they do not have at their level. Once community members fully understand the part they play in the national primary healthcare strategy and in the overall development process at community level, then they are able to give their contribution in the formulation of primary healthcare programmes by examining themselves the health problems that they face in their community, setting priorities, adjusting national solutions to their local communities and organising themselves and put in place support an d control mechanisms (World Health Organisation, 1978). Also, the effectiveness of primary healthcare depends on the use of means that are affordable and acceptable by both the community and the country. The necessity of involvement of other health system components and other sectors that contribute to general countrys social economic development is of paramount importance in the implementation of primary healthcare programmes as health cannot be attained by the health sector alone (World Health Organisation, 1978).The linkage between primary healthcare and other sectors in the context of community development needs a coordinated effort in planning process at the community level. The joined effort from various community development stakeholders results in a sort of collaboration which has a greater impact on primary healthcare. As an illustration of the above, malnutrition reduction programme in less than five should involve community members, healthcare workers, and agricultural worker as they might have the key information that can help in planning process. Additionally, community members can actively participate in the implementation of some components of the programme jointly with other development initiatives from other social economic development sectors. B.GAPS AND LESSONS DRAWN FROM THE CONCEPTUALISATION OF PRIMARY HEALTHCARE IN RWANDA The implementation of primary healthcare in Rwanda has been proven to be effective in recent years. Despite the four years of civil war and genocide that left more than one million of people dead, thousands of hundreds displaced and health system totally collapsed, Rwanda has made remarkable progress in improving the health status of its population (Rodriguez Samuels, 2011). The above remarkable progress is imputable to various factors including ambitious political will that predominantly played in key. Health sector reforms which included community health insurance commonly known as mutuelle de santà © and a boost of health services done by providing the incentives to healthcare staff through performance-based financing schemes have also been a cornerstone in the achievements of such results. Furthermore, strong leadership, strong health policies together with involvement of community health workers in participatory decentralisation and effective coordination of donations from health and development partners have been implemental in implementation of primary healthcare strategies. B.1.Lessons to be leant Primary healthcare conceptualisation and implementation, in Rwanda case, offers great lessons to be learnt for future primary healthcare initiatives either in Rwanda itself or elsewhere in the world mostly in resources-limited countries. Rodriguez and Samuels (2011) highlighted that putting in place a strong leadership and accountability mechanisms at all levels, involvement and creation of ownership of health services seekers, collaboration of all stakeholders in planning process supported by evidence-based policies are more likely to help in achieving the desired outcomes of primary healthcare as it has been shown for Rwandas experience. B.2.Gaps In spite of the above mentioned remarkable achievements that Rwanda has made in implementation of primary healthcare, there is still chasm to be addressed.

The Phoenician Empire :: World History

The Phoenician Empire The Mediterranean Sea has spawned many civilizations through history. The Phoenicians, which originated around 1200 BCE, is one example. Despite the rather small size of this civilization, its impact on our world has been considerable. Being a seafaring nation, the Phoenicians established colonies all over the Mediterranean area, including the present-day cities of Carthage and Tripoli. As notable traders, they shared cultures with many nations, which allowed their invention of the alphabet to spread throughout Eurasia. The Phoenician Empire continued to evolve until its eventual incorporation into the Persian and Macedonian Empires, around 400 BCE. Phoenicia is an ancient region lying on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea. The Empire peaked at around 1000 BCE, and developed until around 700 BCE. Phoenicia, now known as Lebanon, Syria, and Israel, was naturally isolated from other civilizations by the Lebanon Mountains in the east, and the great sea on the west. The small region stretched about 320 kilometers long and about 25 kilometers wide. This geographical isolation gave the Phoenicians enough protection to evolve into a strong nation, while giving it the freedom to trade and explore across the Mediterranean. Although little is known about the ancient civilization, it is known that the government was, at least in part, a monarchy. Royalty was considered a matter of divine descent, so kings could not be chosen outside of the royal family. The merchant families also held much power in Phoenicia, due to their great influence in public affairs. Although the name Phoenicia implies that the civilization was a unified state, the nation consisted of separate city-kingdoms. Each Phoenician City was considered independent from one another, and was ruled by its own king. Phoenicians were known as the most distinguished seafaring traders and merchants of the ancient world. In fact, they called themselves Kena'ani (or Canaanites), which is Hebrew for "Merchant". They established trading colonies all over the Mediterranean Sea, including Carthage, Simyra, Zarephath, Byblos, and Tyre (Sur). Maritime trading also reached into the Atlantic Ocean to England. Some of the goods traded included glass, color dyes, metals, horses, ebony and ivory, linen, coral, honey, spices, oil and precious stones. Maritime trading would not be possible for the Phoenicians without developed nautical technology. Phoenicians were known for having extremely advanced ships and navigation. Ships were built with a keeled hull, which allowed them to travel on the open seas.

Classification Essay - Weight Lifters :: Classification Essays Gym Working Out

Classification Essay - Weight Lifters    Entertainment has been an established part of the American culture almost since its founding. The types of entertainment that most Americans enjoy in today's world are going to the movies, going out to eat, and exercising. Different forms of exercise vary from running and playing sports to weight lifting. Those who enjoy weight lifting can choose to do so in the privacy of their home, in a community center like the YMCA, or in a health club. At a health club one can expect to find a wide variety of people; however, some of these people add to the downside of working out at a local health club because they can be annoying and obnoxious. Three types of these annoying, obnoxious people found at the weight room of a local health club are the show-off, the know-it-all, and the wanderer; these types can be identified by their physical appearance, their social behavior, and their attitude. The first type, the show-off, is known by his flashy appearance, his misanthropic social skills, and his arrogant attitude. The show-off is a single male in his twenties who drives a European luxury car; he always comes to the gym wearing a tank top to display his deep tan and a pair of black and green spandex shorts. He is heavily built and all his muscles are well defined. But he is a man with poor social skills; he seldom talks to another soul and always works out by himself. He frequently ignores the greetings and good-byes of the health club employees; when he does answer a friendly "Hi, how is it going" or a "See you later," he does so in a deep, blunt, morbid tone of voice. He also likes to emphasize how strong and masculine he is by working out at the very front and center of the weight room, where everyone can see him. He refuses requests for help from others like a cheerleader refusing to go on a date with an pimply, nerdy classmate. Most people who work out at health clubs are glad to do without the show-off. The second type is the know-it-all; he is identified by his commonplace appearance, moderately developed social skills, and commanding attitude.

End of Poverty Guide Essay

Jeffrey Sachs was a professor of Economics at Harvard for 38 years and was a major consultant for many nations. He now heads the Earth Institute. His views on the causes of poverty are very different than what is normally thought or presented. His book has 18 chapters which are broken down as follows: †¢ Chapters 1-4 present an overview of the problem and overall solutions to poverty. †¢ Chapters 5-10 details Sachs’ experience in working with Bolivia, Poland, Russia, China, India, and Africa, solving major economic problems. †¢ Chapter 11 deals with the Millennium Development Goals and 9/11 †¢ Chapter 12 deals with on-the-ground solutions, which in reality is a high priced CHE. †¢ Chapters 13-18 map out the details of his solutions. Sachs throws out the normal ways of thinking about the causes of poverty in countries, for instance that people are lazy or stupid, or the countries are not democratic, and that corruption is wide-spread. Fifty percent of the world’s population exists on less than one dollar per day. He believes that much of the problem is structural, which can only be dealt with through the help of the rich countries. Sachs believes, first of all, that all current debt owed by the poor countries should be cancelled. Secondly, if the rich countries would increase their development aid from .2% to .7% there would be enough money available to increase the economic growth so that all countries would no longer be extremely poor. If MAI is to become known as an agency which teaches a new way of dealing with poverty, then we need to become aware of this book and Sachs understanding and approach to poverty. Chapter Twelve really speaks to CHE. I have tried to review what has appeared to me to be the most salient points, chapter by chapter. All chapters are not treated equally. I primarily do this exercise for myself to help me understand the key points from the book. If they are of any help to others, then that is a plus. I have gone into more detail in the other synopsis I have done because of the possible guidance this book can give us for a new paradigm for dealing with poverty individually, locally, nationally and globally (which in reality we are already on the road in doing). Some things are both structural and governmental issues and I am not suggesting that we get involved in these, but change must begin at the village level and then we can scale up our strengths from there. Chapter One–A Global Family Portrait Sachs sets the stage for his thesis and book using examples of Malawi, Bangladesh, India, and China to show different levels of poverty. He talks abut the ascending ladder of economic development for countries. †¢ Lowest are those who are too ill, hungry, or destitute to get even a foot on the bottom rung of the development ladder. They make up the bottom 1/6 of the world’s population, or one billion people. They are the poorest of the poor and live on less than $1 a day. †¢ A few rungs up the ladder at the upper end of the low-income countries are another 1.5 billion people. They live just above the subsistence level. These two groups make up 40% of the world’s population. CHE targets both of these groups, and especially with the first group. †¢ Another 2.5 billion include the IT workers of India. Most of them live in the cities and are moderately poor. †¢ One billion or one-sixth of the world come from the rich developed countries. Sachs says the greatest tragedy of our time is that one-sixth of the world’s population is not even on the first rung of the ladder. A large number of the extremely poor in level one are caught in the poverty trap and cannot escape it. They are trapped by disease, physical isolation, climate stress, environmental degradation, and extreme poverty itself. He breaks poverty into three levels: †¢ Extreme poverty means households cannot meet basic needs for survival. This only occurs in developing countries. World Bank says their income is less than $1 a day. †¢ Moderate poverty is where needs are generally just barely met. World Bank says this represents countries where their income falls between $1 and $2 per day. †¢ Relative poverty generally describes household income level at being below a given percentage of the average national income. You find this in developed countries. He then presents the Challenge of our Generation which includes: †¢ Helping the poorest of the poor escape the misery of extreme poverty and help them begin their climb up the ladder of economic development. †¢ Ensuring all who are the world’s poor, including moderately poor, have a chance to climb higher in economic development. He believes that the following can be done: †¢ Meet the Millennium Development Goals by 2015. †¢ End extreme poverty by 2025. †¢ To ensure well before 2025, that all of the world’s poor countries can make reliable progress up the ladder of economic development. †¢ To accomplish this with modest financial help from the riches countries, which will be more than is now provided per capita. Chapter Two–The Spread of Economic Prosperity Sachs uses several graphs in this chapter. I will not go into detail on these, but I will point out some salient points: †¢ All regions of the world were poor in 1820. †¢ All regions experienced economic progress, though some much more than others. †¢ Today’s richest regions experienced by far the greatest economic progress. As an example, Africa has only grown at .7% a year while the USA at 1.7%. This may not seem much, but when compounded year-by-year, it results in the great differences between the two. †¢ The key fact today is not the transfer of income from one region to another, but rather that the overall increase in the world’s income is happening at different rates in different regions. Until the 1700’s, the world was remarkably poor by today’s standards. A major change was the industrial revolution coming to certain regions and not to others. The steam engine was a decisive turning point because it mobilized the vast store of primary energy which unlocked the mass production of goods and services. Modern energy fueled every aspect of the economic takeoff. As coal fueled industry, industry fueled political power. Britain’s industrial breakthrough created a huge military and financial advantage. But Britain also had existing individual initiative and social mobility than most other countries of the world. They also had a strengthening of institution and liberty. Britain also had a major geographical advantage–one of isolation and protection of the sea, in addition to access to the oceans for worldwide transportation for their goods and importation of other countries’ goods. Sachs then goes on to outline what has fostered major economic growth: †¢ Modern economic growth is accompanied by people moving to the cities, or urbanization. This means fewer and fewer people produce the food that is required for the country. Hopefully, food price per farmer decreases as larger plots are farmed more productively. This also means sparsely populated land makes good sense when many farms are needed to grow the crops, but sparse land makes little sense when more and more people are engaged in manufacturing in the cities. †¢ Modern economic growth fostered a revolution in social mobility which affected social ranking of people. A fixed social order depends on status quo and agrarian population. †¢ There is a change in gender roles with economic development. This affects living conditions as well as family structure. The desired number of children decreases. †¢ The division of labor increases. By specializing in one activity instead of many, producti vity increases. The diffusion of economic growth occurred in three main forms: †¢ From Britain to its colonies in North America, Australia and New Zealand. (It was therefore relatively straight-forth to transfer British technologies, food crops and even legal institutions.) †¢ A second diffusion took place within Europe that ran from Western Europe to Eastern Europe, and from Northern Europe to Southern Europe. †¢ The third wave of diffusion was from Europe to Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Sachs believes that the single most important reason for prosperity spread is the transmission of technology and the ideas underlying it. The technological advances came at different times. †¢ The first wave revolved around the invention of the steam engine which led to factory-producing goods. †¢ The second wave in the 19th century was led by the introduction of the rail and telegraph. It also included the introduction of steam ships instead of sailing ones, and the construction of the Suez Canal. †¢ The third wave was initiated by electrification of industry and urban society. Along with this came the development of the internal combustion engine. †¢ The fourth wave came in the 20th century with the globalization of the world due to new methods of communication starting in Europe. †¢ There came a time of a great rupture which took place with the start of World War I, and sidetracked economic development for awhile. This led to the Great Depression which led to World War II. †¢ A fifth wave took place right after World War II, and in 1991. It began with the massive efforts of reconstruction of Europe and Japan right after World War II. Trade barriers began to come down. There were three worlds: the first was the developed West, the second was comprised of Socialist countries, and the third was made up of undeveloped countries (which were made up of the old colony countries). The world therefore progressed on three tracks. The problem was that the second and third worlds did not share in economic growth and actually went backward. By closing their economies, they closed themselves off from economic development. So what did this mean to the poorest of the poor countries? †¢ They did not begin their economic growth until decades later. †¢ They faced geographical barriers of being land-locked †¢ They faced the brutal exploitation of the colonial powers. †¢ They made disastrously bad choices in their national policies. Chapter Three–Why Some Countries Fail In this chapter, Sachs looks at the cause of poverty and possible solutions. He first deals with, how a family’s per-capita income might increase: †¢ The first way is through savings– either in cash or similar assets like animals, etc. †¢ The second way is shifting to crops that bring a higher yield per hectare, and then adding value to the crop (which is what we teach in our PAD training). †¢ The third way is adopting new technology, which improves their productivity. †¢ The fourth way is resource boom, which means to move to a much larger and more fertile farm. The flip side of increasing their economic growth is by decreasing their per capita income which is more than just the opposite of the above factors: †¢ Lack of savings is of course one way to reduce per capita income. †¢ Lack of trade, meaning that a household hears of the new crop but cannot take advantage of it and stays with what they have. †¢ Technological reversal is when something like HIV hits an area and children lose their parents etc. †¢ Natural resource decline is where the land becomes less and less fertile producing less and less crops. †¢ Adverse Productivity Shock is where a natural disaster hits like a drought, tsunami, earthquake, typhoon, etc. †¢ Population growth lessens per capita income where the father has two hectares of land and it is divided among his five sons at his death. Now Sachs begins to get into the true heart of poverty on a country level: †¢ The poverty trap itself is where poverty is so extreme that the poor do not have the ability by themselves to get out of the mess. †¢ Physical geography plays a major role where countries are land-locked with poor or no roads, a lack of navigable rivers, or situated in mountain ranges or deserts with an extremely high transportation cost. The low productivity of the land is another factor in the geography. †¢ The fiscal trap is where the government lacks the resources to pay for the necessary infrastructure on which economic growth depends. †¢ Government failure happens when the government is not concentrating on high priority infrastructure and social service projects. †¢ Cultural or religious barriers especially as it relates to gender inequality play a significant role in dampening economic growth. †¢ Geopolitics such as trade barriers can impede economic growth. †¢ Lac k of innovation and technology plays a role if people cannot try new things because they cannot risk failure, or because they do not have funds to do so. Sachs believes that over the span of two centuries, the lack of using new technology is why the richest and poorest countries have diverged. †¢ He shows a scatter-gram graph showing there is a demographic trap as well. The higher the fertility rate, the lower rate of economic growth there is in a country. When they have too many children, they cannot invest in education, nutrition, or health, except maybe for the oldest male. One of the best ways to lower the number of children per family is through the education of the girls. Sachs then goes into detail in putting countries into different classes. He points out that none of the rich countries in North American, Western Europe or East Asia have failed to grow economically. All the problems lie in the developing world where 45 of these countries had a fall in GDP. Not all of these countries are in sub-Saharan Africa. He also points out that the oil-exporting and ex-Soviet countries, all high income countries, did not increase their economic growth evenly, primarily because of their authoritarian political structure. He also points out that the most important factor is agriculture. Those countries that used high yield cereals per hectare and that used high levels of fertilizers are the poor countries that tended to experience economic growth. In Africa, the land is much less densely populated but they use neither high yield cereals nor fertilizers and they had falling food production per capita. But they also have far less roads for transporting extra crops to markets and they depend on rainfall which is generally more erratic than high-producing agricultural countries. He also goes on to point out the following: †¢ Economic growth is rarely uniformly distributed across a country. †¢ Governments also fail in their role in allowing growth that might enrich the rich households, while the poorest living in the same area seldom seem to benefit. †¢ Another detriment to growth can be culture especially as it relates to women inequality. Chapter Four–Clinical Economics (CE) Sachs compares clinical economics to clinical medicine. He lays out five parameters for Clinical Economics: †¢ CE is made up of complex systems. The failure in one system can lead to cascades of failures in other parts of the economy. You therefore need to deal with very broad and multiple issues. †¢ CE practitioners need to learn the art of clinical diagnosis. The CE practitioner must hone-in on the key underlying causes of economic distress and prescribe appropriate remedies that are tailor-made to each country’s condition. †¢ Treatment needs to be viewed in family terms, not individual terms. The entire world is part of each country’s family. If countries work together they can have far more impact than working in isolation. †¢ Good CE practice requires monitoring and evaluation. More than just asking if the goals are being achieved, but also asking â€Å"why?† and â€Å"why not?† †¢ The development community lacks the requisite ethical and professional standards. Economic development does not take its work with the sense of responsibility that the task requires. It demands that honest advice be given. He points out where economic development practice has gone wrong: †¢ The rich countries say, â€Å"Poverty is your own fault. Be like us, have a free market, be entrepreneurial, fiscally responsible and your problems will be gone†. †¢ The IMF period of structural adjustment which supposedly dealt with the four maladies of poor governance, excessive government intervention in the markets, excessive government spending, and too much state ownership were not solved by the IMF prescription of belt tightening, privatization, liberalization, and good governance. †¢ The responsibility for poverty reduction was assumed to lie entirely with poor countries themselves. He then lays out his differential diagnosis for poverty reduction. He believes the Millennium Development Goal (MDG) goes a long way in reducing poverty. Once the diagnosis is completed, a proper treatment regime must be carried out. In doing differential diagnosis, questions must be asked in each one of the following areas: †¢ Identify and map the extent of extreme poverty– from the household level all the way up through the community to the country to the state– in all areas of life. †¢ The second set of questions deals with the economic policy framework. †¢ The third set deals with the fiscal framework. †¢ Fourth deals with physical geography and human ecology. †¢ Fifth, the questions deal with the patterns of governance. History has shown that democracy is not a prerequisite for economic development. †¢ Sixth are questions which deal with cultural barriers that hinder economic development. †¢ The last are questions that are related to geopolitics which involves a country’s security and relationship with the rest of the world. The next six chapters, five through ten, deal with specific countries that have gone through this process, and their results. His results are quite impressive. I will not deal much with each country, but an individual chapter might be of interest to the RC involved if he is interested in such things. Chapter Five–Bolivia’s High Rate of Inflation Problem: A hyperinflation rate of 3000% (30 times) between July 1984 and July 1985 with a longer term hyperinflation rate of 24,000%. Lessons Learned: †¢ Stabilization is a complex process. Ending a large budget deficit may be the first step but controlling the underlying forces that cause the budget deficit is much more complex. †¢ Macroeconomics tools are limited in their power. †¢ Successful change requires a combination of technocratic knowledge, bold political leadership, and broad social participation. †¢ Success requires not only bold reforms at home, but also financial help from abroad. †¢ Poor countries must demand their due. Chapter Six–Poland’s Return to Europe Problem: By the end of 1989, Poland had partially suspended its international debt payments. The economy was suffering from high rate of rising inflation and there was a deepening political crisis. Sachs’ approach in Poland, as in other countries, was built on five pillars: †¢ Stabilization–ending the high rate of inflation, establishing stability and convertible currency. †¢ Liberalization–allowing markets to function by legalizing private economic activity (ending price controls and establishing necessary laws). †¢ Privatization– identifying private owners for assets currently held by the state. †¢ Social net–pensions and other benefits for the elderly and poor were established. †¢ Institutional Harmonization–adopting, step-by-step, the economic laws, procedures, and institutions. Lessons Learned: †¢ He learned how a country’s fate is crucially determined by its specific linkages to the rest of the world. †¢ Again the importance of the basic guidance concept for broad-based economic transformation, not to stand alone with separate solutions. †¢ Saw again the practical possibilities of large-scale thinking †¢ He learned not to take â€Å"no† for an answer, press on with your guidance. †¢ By the time a country has fallen into deep crisis, it requires some external help to get back on track. †¢ This help may be in the form of getting the basics right which includes debt cancellation and help to bolster confidence in the reforms. Chapter Seven–Russia’s Struggle for Normalcy Problem: The Soviet Union relied almost entirely on its oil and gas exports to earn foreign exchange, and on its use of oil and gas to run its industrial economy. In the mid- 1980’s, the price of oil and gas plummeted and the Soviet Union’s oil production began to fall. Sachs suggested three actions of the West (but generally they were ignored by the West): †¢ A stabilization fund for the ruble. †¢ Immediate suspension of debt repayment followed by cancellation of their debts. †¢ A new aid program for transformation focusing on the most vulnerable sectors of the Russian economy. Lesson Learned: †¢ Despite much turmoil and rejection much went right so that eventually Russia became a lopsided market economy, still focused on oil and gas. †¢ Russia has a gigantic land mass which causes it to have few linkages with other nations of the world. †¢ Their population densities are low and agrarian and food production per hectare remains low. Over history, 90% of the population has been rural, with cities few and far between. This hinders economic growth. †¢ Without adequate aid, the political consensus around the reforms was deeply undermined, thereby compromising the reform process. Chapter Eight–China Catching Up after a Half Millennium Being Isolated Problem: China lost its economic and cultural lead that it had in its early history. Sachs points out five dates which caused this: †¢ 1434 China had been the technological superpower. This year Emperor Ming closed China to the rest of the world and stopped their advanced ship fleets from going out to the world. †¢ 1839 China finally ended its economic isolation. †¢ 1898 Several young reformers tried to gain power and were stopped. †¢ 1911 Ching Dynasty collapsed and by 1916 China was falling into civil unrest. Their military took control of the empire. †¢ 1949 the rise of the Maoist Movement. He then compares China to Russia: †¢ The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe had massive foreign debt while China did not. †¢ China has a large coastline that supported its export growth, while Russia and Eastern Europe do not. †¢ China had the benefit of large off-shore Chinese business communities which acted as foreign investors, while Russia and Eastern Europe did not. †¢ The Soviet was experiencing a drastic decline on their main export product, oil and gas. †¢ The Soviet Union had gone further down the industrialization road than China. Chapter Nine–India Market Reform Which Was the Triumph of Hope Over Fear Problem: India was controlled by a business, British East India Company, which was driven by greed, and it did everything to maximize profit for the company at the expense of the country. Though India’s population throughout history has been Hindu, vast numbers of Muslims and Christians lived in and sometimes dominated the land. India had poor political and social structures because the land was broken into many small kingdoms governed by many different leaders. In addition, India has the caste-system of stratification of peoples. With independence from the British in 1947, Nehru looked for a path to self- sufficiency and democratic socialism. The Green Revolution had a major impact on the country as high yield crops were introduced. By 1994, India now faced four major challenges: †¢ Reforms needed to be extended especially in liberalization and the development of new and better systems. †¢ India needed to invest heavily in infrastructure †¢ India needed to invest more in health and education of its people, especially the lower castes. †¢ India needed to figure out how to pay for the needed infrastructure. Lessons Learned: †¢ The 21st century is likely to be the era when this poor country’s economic development is substantially reversed. †¢ The country has announced electricity for all as well as essential health services and drinking water for everyone. These are achievable goals and the basis for much-needed investment. †¢ The Hindus did not stifle growth. The Green Revolution and then market reforms overrode the rigidness of the caste-system and the slow growth of the 1950’s and 1960’s. †¢ India has become increasingly urbanized, thereby further weakening the caste-system. †¢ Democracy is wearing away age-old social hierarchies. †¢ India has grabbed the potential of the internet and IT and is leading the way for developing nations in this regard. †¢ India’s varied geography and its miles and miles of shoreline fosters its market position for the manufacture of products. Chapter Ten–Africa and the Dying Problem: Three centuries of slave trade were followed by a century of colonial rule which left Africa bereft of educated citizens and leaders, basic infrastructure, and public health facilities. The borders followed arbitrary lines, not historic tribal lines which now divided former empires, ethnic groups, ecosystems, watersheds, and resource deposits. The West was not willing to invest in African economic development. Corruption was not the central cause for their economic failure as he showed. In the 1980’s, HIV became the worse killer of mankind. In 2001, life expectancy stood at 47 years, while East Asia stood at 69 years, and developed countries at 78 years. Sachs spends time looking at the major diseases of malaria, TB, diarrhea, and HIV. He says poverty causes disease and disease causes poverty. Lessons Learned: †¢ Good governance and market reform alone are not sufficient to generate growth if a country is in a poverty trap. †¢ Geography has conspired with economics to give Africa a particularly weak hand. Africa lacks navigable rivers with access to the ocean for easy transport and trade. †¢ Africa lacks irrigation and depends on rainfall for their crops. †¢ Farmers lack access roads, markets, and fertilizers, while soils have been long depleted of their nutrients. Chapter Eleven–The Millennium, 9/11, and the United Nations. The beginning part of this chapter deals with the Millennium Development Goals. Sachs says that the goals and commitment to reach them by 2015 convey the hope that extreme poverty, disease, and environmental degradation could be alleviated with the wealth, the new technologies, and global awareness with which we entered the 21st century. He says the first seven goals call for sharp cuts in poverty, disease, and environmental degradation, while the eighth goal is essentially a commitment to global partnership. Because you have all seen them, I am not including them here. Regarding 9/11, he says we need to keep it in perspective. On 9/11, 3000 people died for once and for all, but 10,000 people die each day from diseases that are preventable. He believes we need to address the deeper roots of terrorism of which extreme poverty is an important element. The rich world needs to turn its efforts to a much greater extent from military strategies to economic development. President Franklin Delano Roosevelt spoke of freedoms we were fighting for in WWII and for which we still should be attempting to accomplish: †¢ Freedom of speech and expression everywhere in the world. †¢ Freedom for every person to worship God in his own way everywhere in the world. †¢ Freedom from want which translates into economic development. †¢ Freedom from fear which translates into a worldwide reduction in armament, a reduction to such a point that no nation will be in a position to commit an act of physical aggression against any neighbor. One major thing he is suggesting is that the rich countries elevate their giving to .7% of their GNP from the average of .2% it is today. The rest of the chapter is about President Bush and the USA policies and actions. Chapter Twelve–On-The-Ground Solutions for Ending Poverty This chapter is really talking about CHE, but Sachs does not realize it. He says that the world’s challenge is not to overcome laziness and corruption but rather to take on geographic isolation, disease, vulnerability to climate shocks, etc. with new systems of political responsibility that can get the job done. He talks about a village of less than 1,000 in western Kenya, in a Sauri sub-location (in Siaya district in Nyanza province) that he visited, which opened his eyes. He found what we find place after place– that they are impoverished, but they are capable and resourceful. Though struggling to survive, presently they are not dispirited but determined to improve their situation. He then goes on to describe the needs of a rural African community, the same type of community that we deal with every day, as shown in the abundance of applications we receive for CHE. A major problem, he feels, is that the farmers do not have the money to buy fertilizer that would impact their crop productivity drastically. Also they have no school or clinic. He then begins to calculate what it would cost per person to bring a school and teachers, simple clinic and staff, medicines, agriculture inputs such as seed and fertilizer, safe drinking water and simple sanitation, and power transport and communication services. The total cost for Sauri is about $350,000 a year, which converts to $70 a person per year, which could revolutionize the community. If he did CHE, the total cost and per person cost would be greatly reduced. He then goes ahead and extrapolates this up for the country of Kenya to $1.5 billion. At the same time he points out that Kenya’s debt service is $600 million a year and that it needs to be cancelled. But one problem that donors talk about is corruption needing to be eliminated. If countries do not eliminate corruption, they would not be eligible for relief. Also, a budget and management system need to be designed that will reach the villages and be monitorable, governable, and scalable–a set of interventions to ensure good governance on such a historic project. The key to this is to empower village-based community organizations to oversee village services. Most of what he says in this chapter sounds like CHE to me, but we can do it at even a lower cost and we have the experience to implement it. That is why I said earlier that we need to talk to Sachs about CHE. He then goes on with this theme but changes the venue from rural to urban in Mumbai, India in a slum community built smack up against the railroad tracks, one-house deep. He points out the outstanding needs are not latrines, running water, nor safety from trains, but empowerment so they can negotiate with the government. He then mentions that several groups have been found and empowered to do this in this community. Again sounds like CHE for urban poor. Sachs says what this community needs is investments in the individual and basic infra-structure that can empower people to be healthier, better educated, and more productive in the work force. CHE deals with the individual side of the equation. He ends this chapter by discussing the problem of scale. He says everything must start with the basic village. The key is connecting these basic units together into a global network that reaches from impoverished communities to the very centers of power and back again. This, too, is what we are talking about when we describe scaling-up and creating a movement and then forming it into councils and collaborative groups. He believes the rich world would readily provide the missing finances but they will wonder how to ensure that the money made available would really reach the poor and that there would be results. He says we need a strategy for scaling up the investments that will end poverty, including governance that empowers the poor while holding them accountable. I believe CHE fits his prescription. Chapter Thirteen–Making the Investments Needed to End Poverty Sachs says the extreme poor lack six kinds of capital: †¢ Human Capital: health, nutrition, and skills needed for each person to be productive. †¢ Business Capital: the machinery, facilities, and motorized transport used in agriculture, industry and services. †¢ Infrastructure Capital: water and sanitation, airports and sea ports, and telecommunications systems that are critical inputs for business productivity. †¢ Natural Capital: arable land, healthy soils, biodiversity, and well- functioning ecosystems that provide the environmental services need by human society. †¢ Public Institutional Capital: commercial law, judicial systems, government services, and policing, that underpin the peaceful and prosperous division of labor. †¢ Knowledge Capital: the scientific and technological know-how that raises productivity in business output and the promotion of physical and natural capital. He spends several pages on charts showing income flow. He also uses the example of child survival and how it applies to the six kinds of capital. He makes the point that even in the poorest societies, primary education alone is no longer sufficient. He says all youth should have a minimum of 9 years of education. He says technical capacity must be in the whole of society from the bottom up. He talks about trained community health workers and the role they can play. Villages around the world should be helped in adult education involving life and death issues such as HIV. The main challenges now is NOT to show what works in small villages or districts but rather to scale up what works to encompass a whole country, even the world. Again sounds like CHE and where we are going. He goes through several examples where major diseases are being dealt with such as malaria, river blindness, and polio, as well as spread of family planning. He also briefly talks about the cell phone revolution by the poor in Bangladesh and how East Asia has established Export Processing Zones, all of which are improving the life of the poorest of poor nations. Chapter Fourteen–A Global Compact to End Poverty He says the poorest countries themselves must take seriously the problem of ending poverty and need to devote a greater share of their national resources to accomplish this. Many poor countries pretend to reform while rich countries pretend to help them. The chronic lack of donor financing robs the poor countries of their poverty-fighting zeal. We are stuck in a show play that is not real. There are two sides in a compact. In this compact, there should be the commitment in the rich countries to help all poor countries where the collective will to be responsible partners in the endeavor is present. For the other poor countries where authoritarian or corrupt regimes hold sway, the consequences for the population are likely to be tragic but the rich countries have their limits also. He spends time looking at several countries that have Poverty Reduction Strategies where some are working and some not. Ghana is a star in his book. He says a true MDG-based poverty reduction strategy would have five parts: †¢ A Differential Diagnosis which includes identifying policies and investments that the country needs to achieve the MDGs. †¢ An Investment Plan which shows the size, timing and costs of the required investments. †¢ A Financial Plan to fund the Investment Plan, including the calculation of the MDG financing gap, the portion of the financial needs that donors will have to fill. †¢ A Donor Plan which gives multi-year commitments from donors for meeting the MDGs. †¢ A Public Management Plan that outlines the mechanisms of governance and public administration that will help implement the expanded public investment plan. During the 1980’s and 1990’s, the IMF forced Structural Readjustment on the poor countries which did not work. The poor were asked to pay all the expenses for new services. They then moved to a compromise called Social Marketing where the poor were asked to pay a portion of the expense. But neither plan worked because the poor did not have enough even to eat, much less pay for electricity. He says a sound management plan should include the following: †¢ Decentralize. Investments are needed in all the villages and the details for what is needed needs to be established at the village level through local committees, not the national capitol or Washington DC. †¢ Training. The public sector lacks the talent to oversee the scaling up process. Training programs for capacity building should be part of the strategy. †¢ Information Technology. The use of information technology–computers, e-mail and mobile phones– needs to increase drastically because of the dramatic increase of knowledge that needs to be transmitted. †¢ Measurable Benchmarks. Every MDG based poverty reduction strategy should be supported by quantitative benchmarks tailored to national conditions, needs, and data availability. †¢ Audits. No country should receive greater funding unless the money can be audited. †¢ Monitoring and Evaluation. Each country must prepare to have investments monitored and evaluated. He then goes through the following Global Policies for Poverty Reduction: †¢ The Debt Crisis. The poorest countries are unable to repay their debt, let alone carry the interest. Therefore, for each country that agrees to the guidelines noted previously, their debt must be cancelled if there is to be true poverty reduction. †¢ Global trade Policy. Poor countries need to increase their exports to the rich countries and thereby earn foreign exchange in order to import capital goods from the rich countries. Yet trade is not enough. The policy must include both aid and trade. The end of agriculture subsidies is not enough for this to happen. †¢ Science for Development. The poor are likely to be ignored by the international scientific community unless special effort is made to include things that help the poor. It is more critical to identify the priority needs for scientific research in relation to the poor than to mobilize the donor community to spur that research forward. That would include research in tropical agriculture, energy systems, climate forecasting, water management, and sustainable management of ecosystems. †¢ Environmental stewardship. The poorest of poor nations are generally innocent victims of major long-term ecosystem degradation. The rich countries must live up to the ecology agreements they have signed. The rich countries will have to give added financial assistance to the poor countries to enable them to deal with the ecosystem problems. The rich countries will have to invest more in climate research. Chapter Fifteen–Can The Rich Afford to Help the Poor? He asks the question â€Å"Can the rich countries help the poor?†, and his answer is â€Å"Can they afford not to do so?† He gives five reasons that show that the current effort is so modest. †¢ The numbers of extremely poor have declined close to 50% two generations ago to 33% a generation ago to 20% today. †¢ The goal is to end extreme poverty, not all poverty, and to close the gap between the rich and the poor. †¢ Success in ending the poverty trap will be much easier than it appears. Too little has been done to identify specific, proven, low-cost interventions that can make a difference in living standards and economic growth (CHE does this). †¢ The rich world is vastly rich. What seemed out of reach a generation or two ago is now such a small fraction of the vastly expanded income of the rich world. †¢ Our tools are more powerful than ever, including computers, internet, mobile phones, etc. He then spends time in doing calculations to show how this can be accomplished. First he starts with the World Bank. They estimate that meeting basic needs requires $1.08 per person per day. Currently, the average income of the extremely poor is 77 cents per day, creating a shortfall of 31 cents per day or $113 per person per year. He then shows that this represents only .6% of a nation’s GNP. The MDG target which many countries have agreed to is .7% of their GNP. Later on, he shows that the USA is only spending .15% for aid to the world. Sachs then spends time on a six-step process to do a needs assessment to come up with the real number needed: †¢ Identify the package of basic needs. †¢ Identify for each country the current unmet needs of the population. †¢ Calculate the costs of meeting the unmet needs through investments, taking into account future population growth. †¢ Calculate the part of the investments that can’t be financed by the country itself. †¢ Calculate the MDG financing gap that must be covered by donors. †¢ Assess the size of the donor contribution relative to donor income. He proposes that interventions are required to meet the following basic needs: †¢ Primary education for all children with a designated target ratio of pupils to teachers. †¢ Nutrition program for all vulnerable populations. †¢ Universal access to anti-malarial bed nets for all households in regions of malaria transmission. †¢ Access to safe drinking water and sanitation. †¢ One-half kilometer of paved roads for every thousand population. †¢ Access to modern cooking fuels and improved cooking stoves to decrease indoor air pollution. He states extreme poverty (a lack of access to basic needs) is very different from relative poverty (occupying a place at the bottom of the ladder of income distribution) within rich countries, and goes through a more detailed approach of implementing the six steps. He points out that not all donor assistance is for development. Much is used for emergency relief, care for resettlement of refugees, geopolitical support of particular governments, and help for middle-income countries that have largely ended extreme poverty in their country. Also, only a small portion of development aid actually helps to finance the intervention package. Much of it goes for technical assistance which is not part of the MDG numbers. He spends time on the question, â€Å"Can the USA afford the .7% of their GNP?† He responds with a deafening â€Å"Yes!† He does this in multiple ways, one of which is to show that the increase is only .55%, which would be hardly noticed in the US’s average 1.9% increase year-by-year of its GNP. Chapter Sixteen–Myths and Magic Bullets This is an interesting chapter because Sachs shoots down commonly held beliefs concerning the causes and solutions for poverty. He uses Africa as his case to do so:. †¢ Contrary to popular conception, Africa has not received great amounts of aid. They receive $30 per person per year but only $12 of that actually went to be used in development in Africa. $5 went to consultants of donor countries, $3 went to food and emergency relief, $4 for servicing Africa’s debt and $5 for debt relief. In reality, in 2002, only six cents per person went to development. †¢ Corruption is the problem which leads to poor governance. By any standard of measure Africa’s governance is low, but not due to corruption. African countries’ governance is no different than other poor countries in the rest of the world. Governance improves as the people become more literate and more affluent. Secondly, a more affluent country can afford to invest more in governance. †¢ There is a democracy deficit. This is also not true. In 2003, 11 countries in Africa were considered free, with 20 more partially free, and 16 not free. This is the same as is found in other regions of the world. Democracy does not translate into faster economic growth. †¢ Lack of modern values. Again, this is also false. Virtually every society that was once poor has been castigated for being unworthy until its citizens became rich and then their new wealth was explained by their industriousness. He traces this trend in multiple countries. One major factor that does cause change is the change in women’s position in society as their economic situation improves, which accelerates the growth. †¢ The need for economic freedom is not fully true. Generally market societies out perform centrally planned economies. This leads to the thought that all is needed is that the people must have the will to liberalize and privatize which is too simplistic. He shows that there is no correlation between the Economic Freedom Index and annual growth rate of GDP. †¢ The single idea of Mystery of Capital put forth by Hernando de Soto which relates to the security of private property including the ability to borrow against it is also incorrect. Most poor hold their assets such as housing and land. †¢ There is a shortfall of morals which is thought to be the main cause of HIV in Africa. A study shows that Africa men are no different in the average number of sexual partners they have than any other part of the world. â₠¬ ¢ Saving children only to become hungry adults leads to population explosion. Actually it has been shown that the best way to reduce the fertility rate is to increase the economic status. In all parts of the world (except the Middle East) where the fertility rate is over 5 children, those countries are the poorest ones. As children survive, the parents feel less of a need to have more children which is a result of improved economic conditions. †¢ A rising tide lifts all boats. This means extreme poverty will take care of itself because economic development will pull all countries along to improvement. A rising improvement does not reach the hinder lands or mountain tops. †¢ Nature red in tooth and claw means that economic improvement is based on survival of the fittest and those who cannot compete fall behind. This is a Darwin thought which seems to still prevail throughout the world. Competition and struggle are but one side of the coin which has the other side of trust , cooperation, and collective action. He rejects the doomsayers who saying that ending poverty is impossible. He believes he has identified specific interventions that are needed as well as found ways to plan and implement them at an affordable rate. Chapter Seventeen–Why We Should Do It There are several fallacies which affect the USA’s giving: †¢ The American public greatly overestimates the amount of federal funds spent on foreign aid. The US public believes that the government is providing massive amounts of aid. A 2001 survey by the University of Maryland showed that people felt that US aid accounted for 20% of the federal budget versus the actual of .15%. That is 24 times smaller than the actual figure. †¢ The American public believes that the US military can achieve security for Americans in the absence of a stable world. This has been proven untrue especially with 9/11. †¢ There is a fallacy in belief that there is a war of cultures. For many, this relates to Biblical prophesy of Armageddon and end times. The problem in the US is not opposition to increased foreign aid but a lack of political leadership to inform the public how little the US does supply, and then asking the US public to supply more. Hard evidence has established a strong linkage between extreme poverty abroad and threats to national security. As a general proposition, economic failure (an economy stuck in a poverty trap, banking crisis, debt default or hyper-inflation) often leads to a state failure. A CIA Task force looked at state failures between 1954 and 1994 and found that the following three factors were most significant in state failure: †¢ Very high infant mortality rate suggested that overall low levels of material well-being are a significant factor in state failure. †¢ Openness of the economy showed the more economic linkages a country had with the rest of the world, the lower chance of state failure. †¢ Democratic countries showed fewer propensities to state failure than authoritarian regimes. He then reviews what the US government has committed to since 9/11: †¢ Provide resources to aid countries that have met national reform. †¢ Improve effectiveness of the World Bank and other development banks in raising living standards. †¢ Insist on measurable results to ensure that development assistance is actually making a difference in the lives of the world’s poor. †¢ Increase the amount of development assistance that is provided in the form of grants, not loans. †¢ Since trade and investment are the real engines of economic growth, open societies to commerce and investment. †¢ Secure public health. †¢ Emphasize education. †¢ Continue to aid agricultural development. In reality, little progress has been done by the US to the accomplishment of these goals. But he does spend time discussing where plans were established and that funds were flowing where massive amounts of aid were provided by the USA: †¢ End of World War II with the Marshall Plan which revitalized Europe and Japan. †¢ Jubilee 2000 Drop the Debt Campaign started slow but ended up with large amount of national debt being cancelled in the poorest of countries. †¢ The Emergency Plan for HIV is providing $15 billion to fight this pandemic. The bottom line of this chapter is, â€Å"OK, USA and other rich countries, you are saying good things, now step-up to the plate and do what you have agreed to do.† Chapter Eighteen–Our Generation’s Challenge Our generation is heir to two and a half centuries of economic progress. We can realistically envision a world without extreme poverty by the year 2025 because of technological progress which enables us to meet basic needs on a global scale. We can also achieve a margin above basic needs unprecedented in history. Until the Industrial Revolution, humanity had known only unending struggles against famine, pandemic disease, and extreme poverty–all compounded by cycles of war, and political despotism. At the same time, Enlightenment thinkers began to envision the possibility of sustained social progress in which science and technology could be harnessed to achieve sustained improvements in the organization of social, political, and economic life. He proposes four thinkers which led this movement: †¢ Thomas Jefferson and other founders of the American Republic led the thought that political institutions could be fashioned consciously to meet the needs of society through a human-made political system. †¢ Adam Smith believed that the economic system could similarly be shaped to meet human need and his economic design runs parallel to Jefferson’s political designs. †¢ Immanuel Kant called for an appropriate global system of governance to end the age-old scourge of war. †¢ Science and technology, fueled by human reason can be a sustained force for social improvement and human betterment led by Francis Bacon and Marie-Jean-Antoine Condorcet. Condorcet put much emphasis on public education to accomplish the goals. One of the most abiding commitments of the Enlightenment was the idea that social progress should be universal and not restricted to a corner of Western Europe. He said now it is our generation’s turn to help foster the following: †¢ Political systems that promote human well-being †¢ Economic systems that spread the benefits of science, technology, and division of labor to all parts of the world. †¢ International cooperation in order to secure a perpetual peace. †¢ Science and technology, grounded in human rationality, to fuel the continued prospects for improving the human condition. He then spends three or four pages discussing the good and bad points of the Anti-globalization Movement which is taking place. He also spends time discussing three movements which made these kind of changes in the world in their time: †¢ The end of Slavery †¢ The end of Colonization †¢ The Civil Rights and Anti-Apartheid Movement He closes with discussing the next steps which are: †¢ Commit to ending poverty †¢ Adopt a plan of action built around the Millennium Development Goals †¢ Raise the voice of the poor †¢ Redeem the role of the United States in the world †¢ Rescue the IMF and World Bank †¢ Strengthen the United Nations †¢ Harness global science †¢ Promote sustainable development †¢ Make a personal commitment to become involved Summary This is an interesting book with new perspectives for me, and which is beginning to be taken seriously by the world. I believe, as stated earlier, that MAI’s role is on-the-ground solutions for ending poverty through CHE which is spelled out in Chapter 12. But, as also noted, we can do it at a far lower cost than he estimates because of our commitment to empowering people to do things on their own and primarily with their own funds.